Benefits of a psychological skills training program

To investigate how PST and MI may promote functional athletic behavior we will examine underlying mechanisms of change and to what degree these mechanisms are specific or shared by PST and MI. In order to do this, we examine mediators of PST and MI and analyze differential predictors of the two. To our knowledge no studies have examined factors potentially moderating the effectiveness of PST or MI.

Such information is of crucial importance as it may specify the influence of certain situational variables or identify groups of individuals likely to either benefit from an intervention or not. In order to examine for whom and under which conditions PST and MI are not effective, three types of moderators are investigated in the present study. Most importantly, we will look at situational variables , i.

The other two kinds of moderators can be divided into basic demographic factors e. We hypothesize that both active interventions are more effective than a waiting-list control condition in promoting FAB. Thus, the secondary objective is to examine potential factors that mediate the effects of PST and MI. Finally, we hypothesize the effects of both PST and MI on FAB to be mediated by general level of attention and perceived attention control in games or competitions. We therefore hypothesize that athletes high in ego orientation or those with low values of self-esteem and self-compassion benefit the most from PST and MI.

Such athletes might perceive performance situations as threatening for their psychological needs to a greater chance [ 24 , 28 ], especially when the athletic task at hand is difficult or the competition is perceived as important. Perceived threat might lead to, for example, more competition anxiety, negative outcome expectations, or cognitive interference.

In addition, we aim to investigate the role of treatment expectancies common factor and treatment adherence for improvements in FAB. The target group are elite, sub-elite, and recreational athletes from four sports curling, volleyball, i. We chose these sports because they are suited to sample comparable short sequences see primary outcome below within a game or a competition, as opposed to, for example, soccer.

Athletes who are members of the respective Swiss national sport associations will be contacted and offered the opportunity to participate. Criteria for exclusion are a likely mental disorder, significant previous experience with PST or MI, less than 4 h of athletic training per week, or being younger than The sample size calculation is based on differences between the waiting-list control group WC and one of the treatment groups PST or MI after the intervention.

Figure 1 shows an overview of the procedure parallel group design. After a first contact and checking for inclusion and exclusion criteria time 0 , athletes will be stratified for gender, sport, and performance level, then randomly assigned to either the PST group, the MI group, or the WC group, and will be informed about their experimental condition. Members of the same team i. For randomization, a computer-generated random-number sequence will be prepared in advance and sealed in opaque, consecutively numbered envelopes by an independent researcher.

PST and MI participants will be assessed at pre-intervention time 1 , post-intervention time 2 , and at 2 months follow-up time 3. Participants will complete a series of questionnaires at all assessment time points. Participants names will be coded in the data file for anonymization and the code key will be stored in a different file.

Since it is not possible to mask condition assignment for the participants or the experimenter, we will assess and control for outcome expectations regarding the assigned intervention in order to control for potential effects on outcomes see recommendations by Boot et al.

It involves the practice of four psychological skills self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and arousal control and will be based on the latest guidelines and recommendations about instruction and application of these skills [ 1 , 27 , 73 , 77 ].

A sport psychologist trained in specialized PST interventions will explain the expected sport-specific benefits to the participating athletes and advise athletes to do homework between group sessions. A sport psychologist trained in specialized mindfulness-based interventions will explain the expected sport-specific benefits to the participating athletes and advise athletes to do formal and informal mindfulness practices at home between group sessions.

A manual will accompany the instructions for the interventions. Two independent raters will evaluate the adherence to each intervention on the basis of video recordings. In addition to psycho-education and practice at home guided by audio files that can be played on computers or portable devices such as smart phones.

All participants will also be provided with a calendar of their exercises to tick off as they are completed, and daily text messages will remind them to practice their PST or mindfulness exercises. Each intervention consists of four 2-h sessions over the course of 5 weeks. Participants will be advised to practice daily and record their amount of practice.

All sessions will conducted at the center for elite sports of the Swiss Federal Institute of Sport. We will assess FAB as the primary outcome measure using an ambulatory assessment 1 procedure, that samples subjective psychological variables in real time and the natural environment [ 72 ]. In curling we will evaluate the first end S1 , the end before half-time S2 , the first end after half-time S3 , and the last end of the game S4.

In tennis we will analyze the first two sets of one match: the second and the third game 4 S1 and S3 and the last two games of the set or the tiebreak S2 and S4.

In hockey we will analyze each period S1-S3 of one game. After each sequence we will evaluate whether athletes behaved functionally in the last sequence. We will ask the athletes themselves to rate the last end curling , the last 5 points volleyball , the last two games or the tiebreak tennis , or the last period hockey.

It is common practice in other studies using ambulatory assessment to use only a few items to keep the interference of the measurement to a minimum e. To assess FAB, athletes will rate the following questions from 0 no agreement to total agreement on a tablet computer using a scroll bar:. Rate regardless of the result or outcome: In the last sequence , my movements and actions were of a high quality precise, energetic, well timed, etc.

Rate regardless of the result or outcome: In the last sequence , I was focused on the task. Secondary outcomes are negative outcome expectancies assessed directly before the game or match as well as somatic and cognitive competition anxiety directly after the game or match , which are all measured by the respective scales of the Competition Anxiety Inventory State CAI-S [ 11 ].

We will use all these measurements in all three study groups to examine whether changes are specific for the expected groups. Use of psychological skills manipulation check for PST will be assessed by the subscales self-talk , imagery , goal-setting , activation and relaxation of the Test of Performance Strategies TOPS [ 65 ]. Being able to control emotions and thoughts will be measured by the TOPS subscales emotional control and negative cognitions. To assess perceived attention control in games or competitions , we will use the respective subscale of the TOPS.

In addition to basic demographic factors i. We will use the short version of the Brief Symptom Inventory BSI [ 68 ] to assess clinical level of psychopathology. In psychotherapy, treatment expectancies have been shown to predict change in outcome variables e. All analyses will be conducted as intent-to-treat.

Two-way group x time repeated measures ANOVAs will be used to answer the question regarding whether the intervention independent variable had an effect on the primary and secondary outcome measures dependent variables.

Significant overall effects will be followed up with post hoc tests and contrasts between intervention programs e. If there are significant differences between different intervention sub-groups, we will perform multilevel analyses. To test the mediation and moderation models, we will follow the requirements for mediation and moderation suggested by Hayes [ 36 ].

The first three authors of this manuscript will have access to the full dataset. This study is the first to examine the effectiveness both PST and MI in the same randomized controlled trial. We will assess FAB as the primary outcome measure of this study; however, we also investigate psychological variables that may negatively influence FAB i. Both interventions are hypothesized to improve FAB and reduce the extent of psychological variables that may prevent FAB compared to a waiting-list control group.

If the interventions are effective, both PST and MI may be considered empirically validated methods to help athletes behave functionally, which can be considered a prerequisite for performing optimally. Besides investigating the effectiveness of the two interventions, the current study intends to examine potential mechanisms of change and moderators of outcome.

Therefore, we will hopefully not only be able to answer the question whether the interventions work, but also how, under what conditions, and for whom. While the question of how to perform optimally in competition or a game is not the only reason why athletes seek the advice of a sport psychologist, 6 it is a very common, perhaps even the most common reason [ 30 ].

The frequency of this issue being presented underlines the importance of defining FAB as construct and operationalizing it as an outcome measure of sport psychological interventions. Assessing FAB might also help to solve the problem that in researching sport psychological interventions, an abundance of outcome variables is used, which makes it difficult to compare different sports. Also because objective parameters of athletic performance are heavily influenced by physical and external factors, using FAB as an outcome is an attractive alternative.

The use of the ambulatory-assessment method has the advantage of being very close to what athletes are actually doing and experiencing in games or competitions i. The critical points of this method include the fact that it is time-consuming and hardly explored in sport psychology. In subsequent studies, one could expand the assessment of FAB via ambulatory assessment by having athletes rate video recordings of behavioral sequences within the ongoing competition.

Real live measurement is an increasingly used assessment method that offers many additional research options in elite sport. Future studies might use the presented study protocol to examine the effect of PST and MI on other psychological phenomena that may disturb or facilitate FAB and that are not part of the current study, for example, rumination over mistakes. As we assume FAB to be important in every sport i. Furthermore, future research may gainfully examine other personality traits potentially influencing i.

The proposed study is funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation governmental funding. The study has undergone peer-review by the funding body. PR constructed the design of the study and drafted the manuscript. DB constructed the design of the study and revised the manuscript. SH participated in the design of the study and revised the manuscript. MGH constructed the design of the study and revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to refinement of the study protocol and approved the final manuscript.

The study will be conducted in accordance with APA ethical guidelines. All participants will be asked to provide written informed consent to participate in the study and for the anonymous publication of their data.

Confidentiality and anonymity will be assured. In beach volleyball we would analyze the first two sets as this is the minimum amount of sets in one game. Daniel Birrer, Email: hc. Stephan Horvath, Email: hc. Martin grosse Holtforth, Email: hc. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.

BMC Psychol. Published online Jul Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. Received Jun 20; Accepted Jul This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Background Struggling to deliver performance in competitions is one of the main reasons why athletes seek the advice of sport psychologists.

Keywords: Sport psychology, Intervention, Randomized controlled trial, Psychological skills training, Mindfulness, Performance enhancement, Elite sport, Athletic performance, Ambulatory assessment. Background Sport psychologists try to teach athletes how to perform optimally on the highest possible level even under challenging and non-optimal conditions.

Psychological skills training PST encompasses a set of techniques, namely self-talk , imagery , goal setting , and arousal regulation [ 33 , 74 ]. Mindfulness-based interventions MI refer to interventions that foster mindfulness. Effectiveness of PST and MI randomized controlled trials on athletic performance There is evidence from case studies and correlational research that use of self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, arousal-regulation, and mindfulness are all related to objectively measured athletic performance or performance-related psychological variables see [ 24 , 63 ], for an overview.

FAB as an alternative outcome variable in sport psychological interventions? Mediators To investigate how PST and MI may promote functional athletic behavior we will examine underlying mechanisms of change and to what degree these mechanisms are specific or shared by PST and MI.

Method Participants and power analysis The target group are elite, sub-elite, and recreational athletes from four sports curling, volleyball, i. Study design and group allocation Figure 1 shows an overview of the procedure parallel group design. Open in a separate window. Measures Primary outcome measure We will assess FAB as the primary outcome measure using an ambulatory assessment 1 procedure, that samples subjective psychological variables in real time and the natural environment [ 72 ].

To assess FAB, athletes will rate the following questions from 0 no agreement to total agreement on a tablet computer using a scroll bar: Rate regardless of the result or outcome: In the last sequence , my movements and actions were of a high quality precise, energetic, well timed, etc.

Goal Setting. Even in extreme pressure or stressful situations, we can change the way we perceive these potential threats with strategies to decrease anxiety or pressure such as:. In elite athletes, it has been shown that typically the difference between more successful athletes and less successful athletes are:.

Specifically, Olympians who perform up to their potential:. Use imagery. We can see where these skills will lead to long term benefits, but there are also many short term benefits from training the mind.

Recognizing that you are missing a piece of your training or that you want to gain a competitive edge by training the mental side of your sport or performance is a huge step in the right direction. This often challenges an individual to step outside of their comfort zone as well.

Self-awareness is also a vital component to this recognition. Self-awareness means knowing what is happening internally in given situations. If a negative situation arises during training or competition, a performer can only intervene and change those thoughts if he or she happens to be aware of it.

A performer can look at these two components of self-awareness as a huge win. You are already stretching your potential as an athlete or performer, searching for growth, new opportunities, and challenging your mindset. Long-term Benefits. Let's face it, life can be very stressful at times.

Daily events throughout your day can pull your attention into numerous areas all at once. This article is going to discuss the conceptual basis of PST. Myths Surrounding Psychological Skills Training. Subsections Of Psychological Skills. There are three subsections of psychological skills: Foundation skills, performance skills, and facilitative skills. Like physical skills, psychological skills have different times in which they should be developed and practiced Hodge, Foundation Skills.

As aerobic endurance is the foundation for any athlete's physical fitness, so foundation skills are the psychological skills that form the 'foundation' for the rest of the psychological skills that an athlete needs. Foundation skills include commitment, motivation, self-confidence, and self-esteem Hodge, Performance Skills. Once the foundation skills have been developed, performance skills need to be concentrated on. These are the psychological skills that the athlete uses during training and their actual competition.

For example, an athlete needs to know how to block out the irrelevant aspects of competition, such as the crowd in a meter time trial, and focus on the important details, like the gunshot that starts the clock, and trying to keep their cadence and speed up throughout the duration of the time trial Hodge, Facilitative Skills.

Facilitative skills are necessary in order to be able to utilize performance skills effectively. These include communication, training motivation, teambuilding, teamwork and team spirit, psychological rehabilitation from injury, and retirement and lifestyle management.

For example, an athlete may never be able to compete to the best of their ability or reach the level that they desire if they have no training motivation, and thus miss most of their scheduled training sessions Hodge, Psychological Skills Training Methods. Psychological skills are learned and developed through using PST methods Hardy, et.

Foundation methods are the self analysis of an athlete of their current PST; the education of that athlete on the basis of PST and the specific PST methods that will be useful to them in developing the psychological skills that they are weak in; and the actual physical practice of those methods Hodge, Specific PST methods include goal setting, relaxation, mental preparation, self-talk, and mental imagery and mental rehearsal Hodge, Goal setting, self-talk, mental imagery and mental rehearsal, and relaxation are the four PST methods that Vealy identified as being the four most prominent PST methods in sports psychology books as cited in Hardy, et al.

Goal Setting. The athlete has clear short and long-term goals for their performance, but they have no "process" goals - i. They also either visualize or verbalize their goals, alone and with their coach, instead of writing them down. Writing down their goals can help the athlete to set process goals. Weinberg showed that achieving process goals leads to increased self-confidence, by goal achievement showing improved physical skill mastery and performance as cited in Hardy, et.

Self-talk has cognitive and motivational functions. Hardy, et al. The motivational functions are concerned with a variety of things, amongst them being self-confidence, relaxation and arousal control, Hardy, et. In a study done by Perkos et al. Despite studies Hamilton, et. It has also been shown that individual athletes utilize self-talk more than team athletes Hamilton, et al.

Mental Imagery. Mental imagery, when used in conjunction with goal setting and positive self-talk, has been shown to enhance performance more than either PST method used alone Hardy, et al.

Imagery can be used to improve both physical and psychological skills, including the latter skills of self-confidence, control activation, and arousal regulation. Mental imagery simulates the perfect performance, which in turn "trains" the neuromuscular system.

Mental imagery has also been found to improve mental rehearsal Hardy, et. Mental Rehearsal. Mental rehearsal is very similar to mental imagery. It has been shown that mental rehearsal works best when used in conjunction with the actual physical activity—i. Relaxation is crucial at top sporting levels; and it is the primary PST technique that athletes use in order to cope with pressure Hardy, et al.